Regulation, tolerance and deployment of wartime sexual violence

Conflict-related sexual violence is partly shaped by how armed actors control the sexual behaviour of their members. This paper enhances understanding of the mechanisms leading to sexual violence through the use of a blend of theoretical and empirical perspectives, building on foundational work by scholars such as Elisabeth Jean Wood, who first conceptualized ‘rape as a practice’. The paper introduces the concept of organizational preferences, defined as organizational-level patterns of decision making by armed actors concerning the regulation, tolerance and deployment of sexual violence. Arguably, rebellions, insurgencies and state militaries alike can display preferences along a continuum, from explicit orders to passive enabling of abuse, rape and other forms of sexual violence. Notably, the preferences for ordering and enabling can overlap into hybridity, particularly when commanders and soldiers alternately prohibit some violence while normalizing other forms of sexual predation and coercion. In some cases, conflict-related sexual violence may be instrumentalized as targeted wartime atrocities. The arguments presented in this paper are informed by evidence from the Burundian civil war of 1994–2008, wherein one group, the National Council for the Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy (CNDD–FDD) established regulations against sexual violence but applied them inconsistently. The discussion highlights the importance of understanding how commanders control their subordinates, the influence of gender norms that normalize sexual coercion and how preferences relate to broader dynamics. The policy implications suggest that addressing the organizational incentives for commanders is crucial. Recommended strategies include linking international legitimacy and support to evidence of internal disciplinary measures, promoting military training that critically addresses gender norms, and empowering civilian populations to challenge armed groups from secure positions.